The History of a Slave (1889) by H. H. Johnston

Johnston, H. H. The History of a Slave . Kegan Paul, Trench & Co. [London], 1889. Contextual Background Colonial and Intellectual Setting Published in 1889 by British explorer and colonial administrator Sir Harry Hamilton Johnston (H. H. Johnston), The History of a Slave was written at the height of European imperial expansion during the “Scramble for Africa.” At the time, Britain, France, Germany, and Belgium were carving up the African continent into colonies under the pretense of bringing civilization, Christianity, and commerce—often disguising or ignoring the violent exploitation that came with it. Johnston, a key figure in British colonial efforts, especially in Central Africa, presents this book as a “realistic sketch” of African life in the Western Sudan, based on his conversations with African slaves and his travels in the Niger Delta and Cross River regions. While the narrative claims to offer the autobiography of an African man enslaved and trafficked across the Sahara, the text is actually a fictionalized, composite account constructed by Johnston himself. He frames the story as both ethnographic and moral, meant to expose the brutality of African internal slavery and justify European intervention. However, this must be understood in the context of imperial paternalism —the European belief that colonized peoples needed to be "civilized" for their own good. Debates About Slavery and Empire By the late 19th century, transatlantic slavery had been legally abolished by most Western powers, but slavery persisted within African kingdoms and Islamic societies. Johnston uses this book to highlight the persistence of slavery in Africa and among Muslim traders, implicitly supporting British colonialism as a necessary force to suppress it. His work contributed to a genre of anti-slavery colonial literature that portrayed African societies as simultaneously brutal and childlike—needing guidance from the supposedly enlightened West. This rhetorical approach aligned with broader British efforts to justify imperial rule not just for economic gain but as a moral duty. In this way, Johnston’s narrative operates both as a condemnation of indigenous slavery and a defense of colonialism. It also reflects orientalist tropes and racial hierarchies common in Victorian Britain. Relevance for Students Understanding The History of a Slave requires grappling with complex themes: the moral ambivalence of colonial "abolitionism," the use of literature as imperial propaganda, and the construction of African identity by European authors. Though it aims to illuminate the horrors of slavery, it also marginalizes African voices by fictionalizing them through a European lens. For students in AP/IB History and U.S. Government, this text is useful for evaluating: Historical interpretations of African societies pre-colonization. European justifications for empire. The rhetorical strategies used to promote or critique slavery and abolition. The ethical issues of authorship, authenticity, and cultural representation in imperial literature. Thematic Summary 1. Slavery and Human Trafficking in Africa Johnston’s narrative traces the capture, enslavement, and forced migration of a West African man from his homeland through various regions under Muslim, tribal, and colonial control. The text highlights the widespread practice of internal African slavery, the brutality of slave raiding, and the commodification of people—particularly as seen through local wars, human sacrifices, and markets. Historical Link: While transatlantic slavery had ended, slavery persisted within many African societies and Muslim trade networks in the late 19th century. The story underscores how slavery remained a deeply rooted and complex institution outside Western contexts. 2. Imperialism as Moral Justification Though critical of African slave practices, Johnston subtly promotes the British Empire as a moral force capable of ending such brutality. This reflects the imperial theme of the "white man’s burden"—the belief that Europeans had a duty to civilize "barbaric" peoples, especially by eliminating inhumane practices like slavery. Historical Link: British abolitionist sentiment was often used to justify colonization in Africa (e.g., in Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Sudan). Johnston’s account served the dual purpose of moral critique and imperial defense. 3. Cultural Relativism and European Superiority The narrator (through Johnston) presents African spiritual beliefs, customs, and social structures as exotic, irrational, and inferior. Secret societies, cannibalism, initiation rituals, and polygamy are portrayed with fascination but also judgment. Despite some ethnographic detail, the overall tone reinforces racial and cultural hierarchies. Historical Link: The book reflects 19th-century ethnographic trends where European authors claimed authority to define and represent non-European peoples—often through a colonial gaze that dehumanized them. 4. Identity, Voice, and Authorship Although presented as an African's personal testimony, the work is written entirely by Johnston, a white British colonial officer. The African narrator has no name beyond what Johnston gives him ("Mitwo" or "Big Head"), and his voice is filtered through the author’s linguistic and ideological lens. This raises questions about historical authenticity, representation, and who gets to tell whose story. Historical Link: This issue ties into broader historiographical debates about using European-authored texts to understand non-European experiences—especially in the context of slavery, empire, and resistance. 5. Violence, Power, and Resistance Throughout the text, cycles of violence—slave raids, ritual killings, animal hunts, and resistance—define power relations. The narrative reveals how violence was used by traditional rulers, Muslim traders, and eventually colonial agents to maintain or challenge control. There are moments of individual resistance, but these are often overwhelmed by broader structures of domination. Historical Link: Students can connect this theme to the study of violence in imperial expansion, native resistance movements, and the power dynamics within enslaved communities. Description of the Text The History of a Slave (1889) by H. H. Johnston is a fictionalized autobiographical narrative that follows the life of an African man captured and enslaved in the Western Sudan. Written by a British explorer and colonial official, the book presents a vivid, and often disturbing, account of indigenous African slavery, tribal warfare, human sacrifice, and cultural rituals. The story is based on Johnston’s travels and interviews with enslaved people in West and Central Africa, and is illustrated with 47 of his original drawings. While claiming to depict the "true" voice of an African man, the narrative is entirely written and framed by Johnston, making it an important example of colonial-era literature that blends ethnography, abolitionism, and imperial propaganda. The text’s purpose is to reveal the brutality of African and Muslim slavery, but it also implicitly argues for the civilizing role of European imperialism. OPCVL With reference to its origin, purpose, and content, The History of a Slave (1889) offers both valuable insights and critical limitations for a history student examining abolitionist approaches. Originating from British colonial officer and explorer H. H. Johnston, the book was written during the peak of European imperial expansion in Africa and reflects the abolitionist rhetoric often used to justify colonial rule. Its purpose was to expose the cruelty of indigenous African and Muslim slave systems, appealing to British moral sensibilities while promoting the "civilizing mission" of empire. The detailed descriptions of slave raids, human sacrifice, and forced migrations provide students with a vivid (though secondhand) account of internal African slavery, highlighting that slavery persisted in many regions even after the transatlantic trade had been abolished. The inclusion of Johnston’s ethnographic drawings further enhances the text’s documentary value. However, the text has significant limitations as a historical source. Although it is framed as a slave’s personal narrative, the account is entirely constructed by Johnston and filtered through his colonial worldview. The African narrator lacks authentic voice, and his experiences are molded to reinforce imperial ideologies and British cultural superiority. As such, The History of a Slave reflects not abolitionist activism from within Africa or among formerly enslaved peoples, but rather the paternalistic approach of colonial abolitionism used to justify conquest. For students analyzing abolitionist strategies, this text demonstrates how anti-slavery arguments could be co-opted to serve imperial aims—emphasizing the importance of source criticism and the need to compare colonial texts with African or Afro-diasporic voices in the broader abolitionist discourse. Historiographical Lenses Reflected in the Text 1. Imperialist/Colonial Historiography This is the dominant lens of The History of a Slave . Johnston was a colonial administrator, and his portrayal of African societies—though detailed—is filtered through a Eurocentric worldview. He constructs African cultures as violent, backward, and in need of Western moral intervention. Slavery, cannibalism, and paganism are emphasized to justify the imperial presence. This aligns with 19th-century British imperial historiography that used abolitionist rhetoric not to empower Africans, but to promote the British Empire’s supposed moral authority. 2. Paternalistic Abolitionist Narrative While not part of academic historiography per se, the text employs a colonial humanitarian lens —an approach used by some 19th-century abolitionists who emphasized African suffering to build sympathy among Western readers. However, it is not abolitionist in the tradition of Frederick Douglass, Olaudah Equiano, or British evangelicals like Thomas Clarkson. Rather, it uses abolition as a narrative framework to justify colonization, exemplifying how abolitionism could be appropriated for imperial ends. 3. Proto-Anthropological/Orientalist Lens Johnston also draws on early ethnographic or anthropological methods. He includes tribal customs, rituals, language samples, and illustrations to "document" African life. However, this reflects an orientalist lens (as critiqued by Edward Said), where the Other is exoticized, essentialized, and rendered as primitive. These portrayals shape Western perceptions of non-Western peoples through a patronizing and racialized framework. ❗ Not Reflected: The work does not reflect social history from below , revisionist historiography , or postcolonial history , all of which center African agency, question colonial narratives, and critique the very frameworks Johnston employs. Key Themes & Discussion Points Slavery and the Internal African Trade How indigenous African societies practiced slavery (war captives, ritual killings, forced labor). The distinction between transatlantic and intra-African slave systems. Colonial Abolitionism and Imperial Justification How anti-slavery discourse was used to justify European imperialism. British attitudes toward African and Islamic cultures as inferior or in need of reform. Representation and Voice The question of authorship: Can a colonial officer authentically portray an enslaved African? The erasure of first-person African testimony in favor of constructed European narratives. Ethnography vs. Propaganda Is Johnston’s ethnographic detail (language, customs, dress) objective observation or exoticization? Where is the line between anthropology and ideological storytelling? Violence, Power, and Initiation Rites Ritual violence as a means of establishing power in both tribal and colonial structures. How masculinity, identity, and status are defined in the protagonist’s culture. Quote Bank for Analysis or Essay Prompts Quote Theme Discussion Point “You white men know everything… It makes me proud to talk to a white man.” Voice & Power Is this sincere or a colonial ventriloquism? What does this reveal about Johnston’s intent? “We black men cannot remember the number of years that we have lived.” Cultural Representation Reinforces European views of Africans as unscientific or uncivilized. “Wallah! We were but as the brutes.” Transformation Reflects internalized colonial language about ‘civilizing’ non-Europeans. “He had fought bravely… and they made him chief… because he was generous.” Indigenous Governance Shows political systems not based purely on European models. “Epfumo never tells a lie.” Power and Ritual The Epfumo society as a religious-policing body—what parallels exist in other cultures? Curricular Alignment & Use Cases IB History Paper 1: Compare European abolitionist and colonial discourses. Paper 2 (Authoritarian States, Imperialism, Rights & Protest): Useful for case studies on justifications for empire or continuity of slavery. Extended Essay: Origin and authorship issues in colonial anti-slavery texts. Theory of Knowledge (TOK): Issues of knowledge production, authority, and voice. AP U.S. History / World History Units on 19th-century abolition, Africa, and imperialism DBQs or LEQs: Can be used to address themes of abolitionism, empire, and indigenous cultures. Extended Essay or Internal Assessment Potential EE Research Questions “To what extent did British anti-slavery rhetoric justify imperial intervention in Africa? A case study of H. H. Johnston’s The History of a Slave .” “How does The History of a Slave represent African agency, and how does this compare with authentic slave narratives?” “Is H. H. Johnston’s depiction of African societies in The History of a Slave an example of orientalist literature?” IA Investigation Topics “What does The History of a Slave reveal about British justifications for empire in West Africa?” “How accurate is Johnston’s portrayal of African secret societies compared to anthropological records?” Key Excerpts + Annotations (w/ Vocabulary Support) 1. “Epfumo has found the witch…” → Theme: Ritual power, belief systems. → Vocabulary: Epfumo = Secret society figure often portrayed as a ‘devil’ or spirit. → Annotation: Used to enforce conformity, settle scores, or maintain hierarchy. 2. “My people were man-eaters like the Ghuls of the desert.” → Theme: Dehumanization, moral comparison. → Vocabulary: Ghuls = Mythical cannibal spirits from Arabic folklore. → Annotation: May reflect Johnston’s strategy to make African customs appear shocking to Victorian audiences. 3. “We were told Epfumo would kill us if we spoke in the old tongue.” → Theme: Language, identity, fear-based socialization. → Vocabulary: Ndoge = Brotherhood of initiated young men. → Annotation: Social control through ritual and language transformation mirrors ideological re-education under authoritarian regimes. Suggested Writing Prompts IB Extended Essay Practice Discuss the value and limitations of Johnston’s The History of a Slave as a source for studying abolitionist discourse in Africa. To what extent can imperial fiction serve as historical testimony in understanding African slavery? AP Free Response Practice FRQ: Evaluate the ways in which anti-slavery arguments were used to justify imperial expansion in the late 19th century. DBQ-style: Using documents from abolitionist speeches, slave narratives, and imperial accounts like Johnston’s, assess how slavery and freedom were defined across different regions. Suggestions from Mr. Hutchings (Philosophical Pairing) Pair this text with key ideas from Cicero’s De Officiis (On Duties) : Cicero on Natural Law: “Nature has implanted in our minds a common conception of right and wrong.” → Can Johnston’s portrayal of African customs be judged by natural law? Who defines it? Cicero on Justice: "The most fundamental justice is not to harm another unless provoked." → Use Cicero to critique imperial interventionism cloaked as abolitionist justice. Cicero on Voice and Eloquence: “He who knows not history remains always a child.” → Does Johnston allow the African protagonist true historical agency? Or is he kept in metaphorical childhood?